In the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA), it is common to see and hear the terms ‘generalization’ and ‘generality.’ The concept of “generalization” or “generalized behavior change” is highly valued in ABA. In fact, some of the earliest and most influential academic articles in the field include a discussion or study of generalization (e.g., Baer et al., 1968; Johnston, 1979; Stokes & Baer, 1977). To better understand how to promote generalization of newly learned skills or changed behaviors for your child, let’s first discuss what generalization is and why it is so important.
What is generalization?
For children (and adults!) to learn new skills and change behaviors, teaching is essential. Although children might be taught new skills using various teaching strategies, such as clear and specific instructions, prompts and cues, and reinforcement, equally important is the potential for children to learn and use some new skills without direct teaching. Consider the following example –
A child is learning to use a fork in their ABA therapy sessions. After some carefully planned teaching and practice using a fork during therapy, the child is successfully using the fork to eat pasta and a few vegetables! Later that week, the child is at a picnic with their nanny. Remembering that the child’s therapist mentioned how well they were doing using a fork in therapy sessions, the nanny gives the child a small, single-use fork to eat some fruit. The child picks up the fork and begins eating.
In the example above, the child has never been explicitly taught how to use a single-use fork. Their nanny has never taught them to use a fork. And they have not ever specifically learned to use a fork to eat fruit. But, the child picks up and uses the fork in this novel context. When we see a behavior (or a change in behavior) occurring in situations outside of the ones in which the skill was taught, the new skill or behavior change has generalized!
Generalization happens when a behavior (or a change in behavior) occurs – without direct teaching – in new contexts or occurs over time (Stokes & Baer, 1977). Skills and behavior changes have generalized when they happen in novel or non-teaching environments or situations, spread to similar responses, or occur over time (Baer et al., 1968).
Why is generalization important?
Generalization is important because it can make learning more efficient. When generalization occurs, it allows skills and behaviors to be used in new and different situations without the child having to spend time learning to use that skill in each new environment. When we consider all of the new situations that children are in every day, we start to see how generalization of skills is crucial (Alessi, 1987; Stokes & Baer, 1977; Wunderlich et al., 2014).
Generalization is also important because it allows skills to be used in meaningful ways. Consider the following scenario –
A child learns to wash their hands in the bathroom at their therapy center. When the child goes home, they are not able to independently wash their hands in their bathroom.
In this example, the new skill that has been learned during therapy sessions may not be truly valuable for the child because it has not generalized to other places that are very important! When behavior changes that occur during therapy sessions or in other teaching environments generalize to new situations and continue to be used throughout a child’s lifetime, those behaviors become much more valuable and useful (Brady & Kotkin, 2011; Stokes & Baer, 1977).
What are some ways generalization can occur?
Generalization can occur in several different ways – stimulus generalization, response generalization, and response maintenance (Cooper et al., 2020). Each of these forms is described below:
- Stimulus generalization – occurs when a behavior or skill happens in a situation that is different from where it was learned. For example, a child who has learned to count colorful bears at school begins to count their legos at home.
- Response generalization – occurs when variations of a learned behavior emerge and result in the same outcomes as the behavior that was directly taught. For example, a child is taught to unbuckle their seatbelt by pushing on the release button with their hand. Sometimes, without being taught to do so, the child uses their action figure’s hand to push the release button to unbuckle their seatbelt.
- Response maintenance – occurs when a behavior continues to happen after teaching has stopped. For example, a child is learning to use the potty. Each time they successfully use the potty during teaching, they earn a sticker. Several years later, the child continues to use the bathroom even when stickers are no longer provided.
Is there a way to help skills generalize?
When your child participates in an ABA therapy program, you may see or hear the phrases “promote generalization” or “program for generalization,” which refer to the specific, planned ways of teaching to increase the likelihood of generalization. Because generalization of skills is a crucial part of applied behavior analysis (ABA), there have been a number of research studies and discussions (e.g., Brady & Kotkin, 2011; Stokes & Baer, 1977; Walker & Buckley, 1972) about specific ways to promote generalization.
Below are three strategies that you can use to promote generalization (Stokes & Baer, 1977) when teaching your child new skills:
1. Teach Loosely
When teaching a new skill or behavior, one of the simplest ways to promote generalization is by “teaching loosely” (Stokes & Baer, 1977). When ‘teaching loosely,’ the goal is to vary where, how, and how you teach, who does the teaching, and what you do while teaching. Here are some ways that you can ‘teach loosely’ when working on new skills with your child:
- Vary where you work on the skill – sit at the kitchen table, on the couch, on the floor of your child’s bedroom, on the bench at the park, etc.
- Vary the things you use to teach the skill – use pictures, objects, videos, role play, action figures, etc.
- Vary the way you work on the skill – ask the same question or give the same instruction in different ways (e.g., “Can you show me the cat?,” “Where is the cat?,” “Do you see a cat on this page?,” “Help me find the cat!”)
- Vary the time of day or days of the week when you work on the skill (e.g., practice putting on shoes in the morning before school, at nighttime to help take out the garbage, on the weekends before going to the park)
2. Use Multiple Examples/Exemplars
When teaching a new skill or behavior, it is important to make sure your child learns to use that skill in all different contexts . If a child learns to use a skill in a very restrictive way, that skill might not generalize to other important situations. Consider the following scenario –
A parent is teaching their child the name of their grandparent, Nana. She lives far away, so the parent uses a picture of Nana on their phone. Every night, the parent and child practice – they look at the picture, the parent asks the child who they see, and they practice saying, “Nana,” or “That’s Nana!” When Nana makes a trip to their house a few weeks later, the child is not naming “Nana” like they have been when looking at the picture.
What might have gone wrong in this situation? The child learned that the person in the picture is “Nana,” but has not been exposed to sufficient examples of “Nana.” How could the parent approach this challenge? By teaching their child who “Nana” is using multiple exemplars – or examples – of her. They could do this by using 10 different pictures of Nana where she is doing different things, wearing different clothing, and facing the camera from different angles. Here are some examples of how you can use multiple exemplars when teaching your child new skills:
| Skill/Behavior being Taught | Ways to Use Multiple Exemplars/Examples |
| Teaching your child to name the color ‘green’ | When teaching “green,” use: Different shades of green Pictures of different things that are green Different objects in your home that are green |
| Teaching your child to use a spoon | When teaching, have your child practice using spoons: That are different sizes That have handles that are different lengths That are different colors That are made of different materials (e.g., metal, plastic) To eat different types of foods While sitting in different chairs or at different tables |
3. Use Natural Contingencies
When teaching a new skill, incorporating the naturally occurring consequences of that behavior can help to facilitate generalization. Even if other, contrived consequences (e.g., stickers, tokens, special rewards) are used during teaching of a new skill, including natural consequences is an important part of promoting generalization and maintenance. Natural contingencies or natural consequences are the things that might follow a behavior in typical, everyday scenarios. Here are some examples of ways that you can use natural contingencies when teaching new skills:
Behavior/Skill | Contrived Consequence | Natural Consequences to Include |
Putting away toys when asked to clean up | 5 extra minutes of YouTube time is earned after all toys are put away | Acknowledgement/praise for cleaning up the toys (“Wow, it’s so clean in here! Thank you!”) |
Finding out where toys are by asking, “Where is my [toy]?” | Parent provides lots of praise and hugs every time the child uses a ‘where’ question to ask where their toys are | An answer to the question – this answer provides the information that the child is asking about (“Your car is on the table in the kitchen”) |
Using these strategies (Stokes & Baer, 1977) can help children learn meaningful new skills that they can use throughout their lives.
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FAQ: Understanding Generalization in ABA
About the Author
DR. CASEY NOTTINGHAM, BCBA-D
With over a decade of dedicated work in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), Dr. Nottingham brings a profound commitment to both clinical excellence and advancing the field. Her journey began at Caldwell University, where she earned M.A. and Doctorate degrees in ABA, igniting a passion for furthering the therapeutic impact of this science.
Dr. Nottingham’s profound knowledge, developed through years of experience, is balanced by her approachable and personable demeanor. This is demonstrated in her leadership roles and her expertise in building client-centered ABA programs across diverse settings, from homes and therapy centers to community environments in New Jersey. Her focus on individualization and effective collaboration ensures optimal outcomes for each client.
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References
Alessi, G. (1987). Generative strategies and teaching for generalization. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 5, 15-27. doi: 10.1007/BF03392816
Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(1), 91-97. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91
Brady, J., & Kotkin, R. (2011). Creating lasting behavioral change through the generalization analysis worksheet. Contemporary School Psychology, 15, 131-137. doi: 10.1007/BF03340969
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd edition). Pearson Education, Inc.
Johnston, J. M. (1979). On the relation between generalization and generality. Behavior Analyst, 2(2), 1-6. doi: 10.1007/BF03391833
Stokes, T. F., & Baer, D. M. (1977). An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10(2), 349-367. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1977.10-349
Walker, H. M., & Buckley, N. K. (1972). Programming generalization and maintenance of treatment effects across time and across settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5(3), 209-224. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1972.5-209
Wunderlich, K. L., Vollmer, T. R., Donaldson, J. M., & Phillips, C. L. (2014). Effects of serial and concurrent training on acquisition and generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47(4), 723-737. doi: 10.1002/jaba.154
